Secession (derived from the Latin term secessio Secessio plebis was an informal exercise of power by Rome's plebeian citizens, similar to a general strike taken to the extreme. During a secessio plebis, the plebs would simply abandon the city en masse and leave the patrician order to themselves. Therefore a secessio meant that all shops and workshops would shut down and commercial transactions) is the act of withdrawing from an organization, union, or especially a political entity. Threats of secession also can be a strategy for achieving more limited goals.^[1]

Secession theory

Mainstream political theory Political philosophy is the study of such as liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a largely ignored theories of secession until the dissolution of the Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (help·info), tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, IPA [sɐˈjʊs sɐˈvʲeʦkʲɪx səʦɪ, Yugoslavia Yugoslavia is a term that describes three political entities that existed successively on the western part of Balkan Peninsula in Europe, during most of the 20th century and Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992. From 1939 to 1945 the state did not have de facto existence, due to its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, but the Czechoslovak in the early 1990s through secession. Theories of secession address a fundamental problem of political philosophy: the legitimacy and moral basis of the state’s authority, be it based on “God’s will,” consent of the people, the morality of goals, or usefulness to obtaining goals.^[2]

In his 1991 book Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce From Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec, philosophy professor Allen Buchanan outlined limited rights to secession under certain circumstances, mostly related to oppression by people of other ethnic or racial groups, and especially those previously conquered by other peoples.^[1]

In the fall of 1994 the Journal of Libertarian Studies The Journal of Libertarian Studies was a scholarly journal published annually by the Ludwig von Mises Institute and Llewellyn H. Rockwell, Jr.. It was founded in the spring of 1977 by Murray Rothbard who also served as its editor until his death in 1995. The journal had been published by the Center for Libertarian Studies, but moved to the Mises published Robert W. McGee’s article ”Secession Reconsidered.” He writes from a libertarian Libertarianism is support for liberty. Libertarians have come to embrace a variety of beliefs about social structures, with some libertarians striving for minimization of the state,[not in citation given][unreliable source?] and others desiring to achieve complete elimination of any hierarchical imposition of authority to include an opposition to perspective, but holds that secession is justified only if secessionists can create a viable, if minimal, state on contiguous A contiguity is a continuous mass, or a series of things in contact or proximity. In a different meaning, contiguity is the state of being contiguous. The concept was first set out in the Law of Contiguity, one of Aristotle's Laws of Association, which states that things which occur in proximity to each other in time or space are readily territory.^[3]

In April 1995 the Ludwig Von Mises Institute The Ludwig von Mises Institute , based in Auburn, Alabama, is a libertarian academic organization engaged in research and scholarship in the fields of economics, philosophy and political economy. Its scholarship is inspired by the work of Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Other Austrian School academics such as Murray Rothbard and sponsored a secession conference. Papers from the conference were later published in the book Secession, State and Liberty by David Gordon. Among articles included were: “The Secession Tradition in America” by Donald Livingston; “When is Political Divorce Justified?” by Steven Yates; “The Ethics of Secession” by Scott Boykin; “Nations by Consent: Decomposing the Nation-State” by Murray Rothbard Murray Newton Rothbard was an American intellectual, individualist anarchist, author, and economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed "anarcho-capitalism". Rothbard wrote over twenty books and is considered by some to be "dean of the Austrian; “Yankee Confederates: New England Secession Movements Prior to the War Between the States” by Thomas DiLorenzo Thomas James DiLorenzo is an American economics professor at Loyola University Maryland. He is an adherent of the Austrian School of Economics. He is a senior faculty member of the Ludwig von Mises Institute and an affiliated scholar of the League of the South Institute, the research arm of the League of the South, and the Abbeville Institute. He; “Was the Union Army's Invasion of the Confederate States a Lawful Act?" by James Ostrowski.^[4]

In July 1998 the Rutgers University Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , is the largest institution for higher education in New Jersey. It was originally chartered as Queen's College in 1766 and is the eighth-oldest college in the United States. Rutgers was originally a private university affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church and admitted only male students, but evolved journal “Society” published papers from a “Symposium on Secession and Nationalism at the Millennium” including the articles “The Western State as Paradigm” by Hans-Herman Hoppe, “Profit Motives in Secession” by Sabrina P. Ramet, “Rights of Secession” by Daniel Kofman, “The Very Idea of Secession” by Donald Livingston and “Secession, Autonomy, & Modernity” by Edward A. Tiryakian. In 2007 the University of South Carolina The University of South Carolina is a public, co-educational research university located in Columbia, South Carolina, United States. Its historic campus covers over 359 acres (1.5 km2) in downtown Columbia not far from the South Carolina State House sponsored a conference called “Secession As an International Phenomenon” which produced a number of papers on the topic.^[5]

Justifications for secession

Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason (“Choice Theory") while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices (“Just Cause Theory”).^[6] Some theories do both. A list of justifications may be presented supporting the right to secede, as described by Allen Buchanan, Robert McGee, Anthony Birch,^[7] Walter Williams,^[8] Jane Jacobs Jane Jacobs, OC, O.Ont was an American-born Canadian writer and activist with primary interest in communities and urban planning and decay. She is best known for The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961), a powerful critique of the urban renewal policies of the 1950s in the United States. The book has been credited with reaching beyond,^[9] Frances Kendall and Leon Louw,^[10] Leopold Kohr,^[11] Kirkpatrick Sale Kirkpatrick Sale is an independent scholar and author who has written prolifically about environmentalism, luddism, technology and political decentralism. He has been described as "a leader of the Neo-Luddites" and "the theoretician for a new secessionist movement.",^[12] and various authors in David Gordon’s “Secession, State and Liberty,” includes:

• United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language President The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States James Buchanan James Buchanan, Jr. was the 15th President of the United States from 1857–1861 and the last to be born in the 18th century. To date he is the only president from the state of Pennsylvania and the only one to have never married, Fourth Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union December 3, 1860: "The fact is that our Union rests upon public opinion, and can never be cemented by the blood of its citizens shed in civil war. If it can not live in the affections of the people, it must one day perish. Congress possesses many means of preserving it by conciliation, but the sword was not placed in their hand to preserve it by force."
• United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language President The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States (1801–1809), and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). Jefferson was one of the most influential Founding Fathers, known for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. Jefferson envisioned America as the force behind a great ": "If any state in the Union will declare that it prefers separation...to a continuance in union... I have no hesitation in saying, 'let us separate.' "^[13]
• The right to liberty Liberty is the concept of ideological and political philosophy that identifies the condition to which an individual has the right to behave according to one's own personal responsibility and free will, freedom of association Freedom of association is the individual right to come together with other individuals and collectively express, promote, pursue and defend common interests. The right to freedom of association has been included in a number of national constitutions and human rights instruments, including the US constitution and the European Convention on Human and private property Private property is the right of persons and firms to obtain, own, control, employ, dispose of, and bequeath land, capital, and other property. Private property can take the form of real estate, homes, factories, automobiles, capital, patents and copyrights. It is distinguished from public property, which refers to assets owned by a state,
• Consent as important democratic principle; will of majority to secede should be recognized
• Making it easier for states to join with others in an experimental union
• Dissolving such union when goals for which it was constituted are not achieved
• Self-defense Self-defense or self-defence is a countermeasure that involves defending oneself, one's property or the well-being of another from physical harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a legal justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many jurisdictions, but the interpretation varies widely. To be acquitted of any kind when larger group presents lethal threat to minority or the government cannot adequately defend an area
• Self-determination The right of nations to self-determination , or in short form self-determination is the principle in international law, that nations have the right to freely decide on their sovereignity and international political status without external compulsion or outside interference. The principle does not state how the decision is to be made, or what the of peoples
• Preserving culture, language, etc. from assimilation or destruction by a larger or more powerful group
• Furthering diversity by allowing diverse cultures to keep their identity Identity politics refers to political arguments that focus upon the self interest and perspectives of social minorities, or self-identified social interest groups. Not all members of any given group are necessarily involved in identity politics
• Rectifying past injustices, especially past conquest by a larger power
• Escaping “discriminatory redistribution,” i.e., tax schemes, regulatory policies, economic programs, etc. that distribute resources away to another area, especially in an undemocratic fashion
• Enhanced efficiency when the state or empire becomes too large to administer efficiently
• Preserving “liberal purity” (or “conservative purity”) by allowing less (or more) liberal regions to secede
• Providing superior constitutional systems which allow flexibility of secession
• Keeping political entities small and human scale The term "human scale" is also used to refer to the Small Is Beautiful school of philospophy associated with Leopold Kohr, E. F. Schumacher, John Papworth and Kirkpatrick Sale, among others through right to secession

Aleksandar Pavkovic,^[14] associate professor at the Department of Politics and International Studies at Macquarie University Macquarie University is an Australian public teaching and research university located in Sydney, with its main campus situated in Macquarie Park. Founded in 1964 by the New South Wales Government, it was the third university to be established in the metropolitan area of Sydney. Macquarie’s 126 hectare, park-like campus belies its setting within in Australia and the author of several books on secession describes five justifications for a general right of secession within liberal political theory:^[15]

• Anarcho-Capitalism: individual liberty to form political associations and private property rights together justify right to secede and to create a “viable political order” with like-minded individuals.
• Democratic Secessionism: the right of secession, as a variant of the right of self-determination, is vested in a “territorial community” which wishes to secede from “their existing political community”; the group wishing to secede then proceeds to delimit “its” territory by the majority.
• Communitarian Secessionism: any group with a particular “participation-enhancing” identity, concentrated in a particular territory, which desires to improve its members’ political participation has a prima facie Prima facie is a Latin expression meaning on its first appearance, or at first sight. The literal translation would be "at first face", prima first, facie face, both in the ablative case. It is used in modern legal English to signify that on first examination, a matter appears to be self-evident from the facts. In common law right to secede.
• Cultural Secessionism: any group which was previously in a minority has a right to protect and develop its own culture and distinct national identity through seceding into an independent state.
• The Secessionism of Threatened Cultures: if a minority culture is threatened within a state that has a majority culture, the minority needs a right to form a state of its own which would protect its culture.

Types of secession

Secession theorists have described a number of ways in which a political entity (city, county, canton, state) can secede from the larger or original state:^[1][15][16]

• Secession from federation A federation , also known as a federal state,EKAS.gee is a type of sovereign state characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central (federal) government. In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral or confederation A confederation is an association of sovereign member states, that by treaty have delegated certain of their competences to common institutions, in order to coordinate their policies in a number of areas, without constituting a new state on top of the member states. Under international law a confederation respects the sovereignty of its members (political entities with substantial reserved powers which have agreed to join together) versus secession from a unitary state A unitary state is a sovereign state governed as one single unit in which the central government is supreme and any administrative divisions exercise only powers that the central government chooses to delegate. Many states in the world have a unitary system of government (a state governed as a single unit with few powers reserved to sub-units)
• National (seceding entirely from the national state) versus local (seceding from one entity of the national state into another entity of the same state)
• Central or enclave In political geography, an enclave is a territory whose geographical boundaries lie entirely within the boundaries of another territory (seceding entity is completely surrounded by the original state) versus peripheral (along a border of the original state)
• Secession by contiguous units versus secession by non-contiguous units (exclaves In political geography, an enclave is a territory whose geographical boundaries lie entirely within the boundaries of another territory)
• Separation Separatism is the advocacy of a state of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group, often with demands for greater political autonomy and even for full political secession and the formation of a new state. Depending on their political situation and views, groups may refer to their or partition In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one community’s homeland. That change is done primarily via diplomatic means, and use of military force is negligible (although an entity secedes, the rest of the state retains its structure) versus dissolution (all political entities dissolve their ties and create several new states)
• Irredentism Irredentism is any position advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. Some of these movements are also called pan-nationalist movements. It is a feature of identity politics and cultural and political geography. Because most borders have where secession is sought in order to annex the territory to another state because of common ethnicity or prior historical links
• Minority (a minority of the population or territory secedes) versus majority (a majority of the population or territory secedes)
• Secession of better off regions versus secession of worse off regions
• The threat of Secession sometimes is used as a strategy to gain greater autonomy within the original state

Arguments against secession

Allen Buchanan, who supports secession under limited circumstances, lists arguments that might be used against secession:^[1]

• “Protecting Legitimate Expectations” of those who now occupy territory claimed by secessionists, even in cases where that land was stolen
• “Self Defense” if losing part of the state would make it difficult to defend the rest of it
• “Protecting Majority Rule” and the principle that minorities must abide by them
• “Minimization of Strategic Bargaining” by making it difficult to secede, such as by imposing an exit tax
• “Soft Paternalism” because secession will be bad for secessionists or others
• “Threat of Anarchy” because smaller and smaller entities may choose to secede until there is chaos
• “Preventing Wrongful Taking” such as the state’s previous investment in infrastructure
• “Distributive Justice” arguments that wealthier areas cannot secede from poorer ones

Secession movements

See also Category: Secessionist organizations Categories: Organizations by subject | Political organizations by issue | Secession

Movements that work towards political secession may describe themselves as being autonomy An autonomous area is an area of a country that has a degree of autonomy, or freedom from an external authority. Typically it is either geographically distinct from the country or is populated by a national minority. Countries that include autonomous areas are often federacies. Autonomous areas can be divided into territorial autonomies,, separatist Separatism refers to the advocacy of a state of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group, often with demands for greater political autonomy and even for full political secession and the formation of a new state. Depending on their political situation and views, groups may refer to their, independence Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory, self-determination The right of nations to self-determination , or in short form self-determination is the principle in international law, that nations have the right to freely decide on their sovereignity and international political status without external compulsion or outside interference. The principle does not state how the decision is to be made, or what the, partition In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one community’s homeland. That change is done primarily via diplomatic means, and use of military force is negligible, devolution Devolution is the statutory granting of powers from the central government of a sovereign state to government at a subnational level, such as a regional, local, or state level. It differs from federalism in that the powers devolved may be temporary and ultimately reside in central government, thus the state remains, de jure, unitary decentralization Decentralization or Decentralisation is the process of dispersing decision-making governance closer to the people and/or citizen. It includes the dispersal of administration or governance in sectors or areas like engineering, management science, political science, political economy, sociology and economics. Decentralization is also possible in the, sovereignty Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided. The concept has been discussed, debated and questioned throughout history, from the time of the Romans through to the present day,, self-governance It may refer to personal conduct or family units but more commonly refers to larger scale activities, i.e., professions, industry bodies, religions and political units, up to and including autonomous regions and aboriginal peoples . It falls within the larger context of governance and principles such as consent of the governed, and may involve non- or decolonization movements instead of, or in addition to, being secession movements.

Argentina

The Platine War (1853–1854) was triggered by the efforts of Paraguay, Uruguay and Corrientes Province, with the support of the Empire of Brazil, to secede from the Argentine Confederation which sought to recreate the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.

Australia

During the 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales (NSW) was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria (Vic) in 1851 and Queensland (Qld) in 1859.

However, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century; particularly in central Queensland (centred in Rockhampton) in the 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland (with Bowen as a potential colonial capital) in the 1870s. Other secession (or territorial separation) movements arose and these advocated the secession of New England in northern central New South Wales, Deniliquin in the Riverina district also in NSW, and Mount Gambier in the eastern part of South Australia.

Western Australia

Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia (WA), where a 1933 referendum for secession from the Federation of Australia passed with a two-thirds majority. The referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament, which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution.

• The Principality of Hutt River claims to have seceded from Australia in 1970, although its status is not recognised by Australia or any other country. According to a lexicon on nationalist movements across the world, Macau happened to recognise that Principality.

Austria

Austria successfully seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27, 1945. This took place after seven years of Austria being part of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich due to the Anschluss annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938.

Belgium and the Netherlands

On August 25, 1830, during the reign of William I, the nationalistic opera La muette de Portici was performed in Brussels. Soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Netherlands.

Brazil

Two southern republican states seceded from Brazil in 1835. Defeated in the War of the Farrapos, they returned in 1845. The slightly earlier cabanagem struggle of Grão-Pará was in part a northern secessionist movement.

Canada

Throughout Canada's history, there has been tension between English-speaking and French-speaking Canadians. Under the Constitutional Act of 1791, the Quebec colony (including parts of what is today Quebec, Ontario and Newfoundland and Labrador) was divided in two: Lower Canada (which retained French law and institutions and is now divided between the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador) and Upper Canada (a new colony intended to accommodate the many English-speaking settlers, including the United Empire Loyalists, and now part of Ontario). The intent was to provide each group with its own colony. In 1841, the two Canadas were merged into the Province of Canada. The union proved contentious, however, resulting in a legislative deadlock between English and French legislators. The difficulties of the union led to the adoption of a federal system in Canada, and the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The federal framework did not eliminate all tensions, however, leading to the Quebec sovereignty movement in the latter half of the 20th century.

Other occasional secessionist movements have included anti-Confederation movements in 19th century Atlantic Canada (see Anti-Confederation Party), the North-West Rebellion of 1885, and various small separatism movements in Alberta particularly (see Alberta separatism) and Western Canada generally (see, for example, Western Canada Concept).

Central America

After the 1823 collapse of the First Mexican Empire, the former Captaincy-General of Guatemala was organized into a new Federal Republic of Central America. In 1838 Nicaragua seceded. The Federal Republic was formally dissolved in 1840, all but one of the states having seceded amidst general disorder.

China

• The Republic of China (ROC) government, which ruled mainland China from 1911 to 1949, administers Taiwan and a few surrounding islands, while the People's Republic of China (PRC) government administers mainland China. Both sides officially claim sovereignty over both mainland China and Taiwan. There is debate in Taiwan as to whether to create a new Republic of Taiwan to replace the current ROC government. At the Third session of the Tenth National People's Congress (March 14, 2005) the Chinese government adopted the Anti-Secession Law of the People's Republic of China. See Taiwan independence.
• Within the PRC, the two western regions of Xinjiang and Tibet are also the focus of secessionist calls by the International Tibet Independence Movement and East Turkestan independence movement.

Congo

In 1960 the State of Katanga declared independence from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. United Nations troops crushed it in Operation Grand Slam.

Cyprus

In 1974 the Turkish Army invaded northern Cyprus to protect the interests of the ethnic Turkish minority, who in the following year formed the Turkish Federative State of Cyprus and in 1983 declared independence as the Republic of Northern Cyprus, recognized only by Turkey.

East Timor

The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (also known as East Timor) has been described as having "seceded" from Indonesia.^[17][18][19] After Portuguese sovereignty was terminated in 1978, Indonesia forcefully assimilated East Timor. However the United Nations and the International Court of Justice refused to recognize this incorporation. Therefore the resulting civil war and eventual 2002 Timorese vote for complete separation are better described as an independence movement.^[20]

Ethiopia

Following the 1993 victory of counterrevolutionary forces in an Ethiopian civil war, Eritrea, which had been united to that country by conquest by Italy, seceded in a United Nations referendum. Secessionist forces in Tigre and elsewhere agreed to continue Ethiopia as a federation.

European Union

Before the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force on 1 December 2009 no provision in the treaties or law of the European Union outlined the ability of a state to voluntarily withdraw from the EU. The European Constitution did propose such a provision and, after the failure to ratify the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, that provision was then included in the Lisbon Treaty.

The treaty introduces an exit clause for members who wish to withdraw from the Union. This formalises the procedure by stating that a member state may notify the European Council that it wishes to withdraw, upon which withdrawal negotiations begin; if no other agreement is reached the treaty ceases to apply to the withdrawing state two years after such notification.^{[citation needed]}

Gran Colombia

After a decade of tumultuous federalism, Ecuador and Venezuela seceded from Gran Colombia in 1830, leaving the similarly tumultuous United States of Colombia, now the Republic of Colombia which also lost Panama in 1903.

India

The Constitution of India does not allow Indian states to secede from the Union. Secessionist movements in Nagaland and Sikkim have been suppressed by the military, and separatist sentiment still runs strong in those states. Secessionists were also active in Mizoram, Punjab as Khalistan, Assam, Manipur, Tripura and Tamil Nadu although these separatist sentiment has died down in those states.^[21] This has been due to a mixture of military action and political agreements. See for example, Mizo Accord and Assam Accord. However Nationalist political parties, such as the Hurriyat Conference although active, face several restrictions by India since it was given a special status within the Union of India.There are at least 9 states in India where hundreds of separation movements are carried out.^[22]

Italy

The Movement for the Independence of Sicily (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano, MIS) has its roots in the Sicilian Independentist Movement of the late 1940s. They have been around for 60 years and is the oldest movement in Italy. Lega Nord sees the independence of Padania which includes lands along the Po Valley in northern Italy.

Islamic Republic of Iran

Active secession movements include: Assyrian independence movement, Iranian Kurdistan; Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), Khūzestān Province (Arab nationalist); Al-Ahwaz Arab People's Democratic Popular Front, Democratic Solidarity Party of Al-Ahwaz (See Politics of Khūzestān Province: Arab politics and separatism), and Balochistan People's Party (BPP) supporting Baloch Separatism.^[23]

Malaysia

When racial and partisan strife erupted, Singapore left the Malaysian federation in 1965. Agitation for secession has since been sporadic on the culturally distinct large island of Borneo in the states of Sabah and Sarawak.

Mexico

• Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836 (see Texas Revolution), after animosity between the Mexican government and the American settlers of the Coahuila y Tejas State. It was later annexed by the United States in 1845.
• The Republic of the Rio Grande seceded from Mexico on January 17, 1840, it rejoined Mexico in November 6 the same year.
• After the federal system was abandoned by President Santa Anna, the Congress of Yucatan approved in 1840 a declaration of independence, establishing the Republic of Yucatán. The Republic rejoined Mexico in 1843.

New Zealand

Secession movements have surfaced several times in the South Island of New Zealand. A Premier of New Zealand, Sir Julius Vogel, was amongst the first people to make this call, which was voted on by the Parliament of New Zealand as early as 1865. The desire for South Island independence was one of the main factors in moving the capital of New Zealand from Auckland to Wellington that year.

The South Island Party with a pro-South agenda, fielded candidates in the 1999 General Election and a new South Island Party was formed before the 2008 General Election. Today, the question of South Island Independence remains a matter of public debate rather than a political issue.

Nigeria

Between 1967 and 1970, the unrecognised state of Biafra (The Republic of Biafra) seceded from Nigeria, resulting in a civil war that ended with the state returning to Nigeria. Later in 1999 at the beginning of a new democratic regime, other secessionist movements emerged, the movement for the Actualization of a Sovereign state of Biafra was formed as a military wing of the Republic of Biafra.

Norway and Sweden

Sweden, having left the Kalmar Union with Denmark and Norway in the 16th century, entered into a loose personal union with Norway in 1814. Following a constitutional crisis, in 1905 the Norwegian Parliament declared that King Oscar II had failed to fulfill his constitutional duties on June 7. He was therefore no longer King of Norway and because the union depended on the two countries sharing a king, it was thus dissolved. After negotiations Sweden agreed to this on October 26.

Pakistan

After the Awami League won the 1970 national elections, negotiations to form a new government foundered, resulting in the Bangladesh Liberation War by which the eastern wing of Pakistan seceded. The Balochistan Liberation Army (also Baloch Liberation Army or Boluchistan Liberation army) (BLA) is a Baloch nationalist militant secessionist organization. The stated goals of the organization include the establishment of an independent state of Balochistan free of Pakistani and Iranian Federations. The name Baloch Liberation Army first became public in summer 2000, after the organization claimed credit for a series of bomb attacks in markets and railways lines.^{[citation needed]}

Some Pashtuns also want Pashtunistan.

Somalia

Somaliland is an autonomous region,^[24] which is part of the Somali republic.^[25][26] Those who call the area the Republic of Somaliland consider it to be the successor state of the former British Somaliland protectorate. Having established its own local government in Somalia in 1991, the region's self-declared independence remains unrecognized by any country or international organization.^[27][28]

Soviet Union

In 1990, after free elections, Soviet Lithuania declared independence. Other SSRs followed and the Soviet Union collapsed.

South Africa

In 1910, following the British Empire's defeat of the Afrikaner in the Boer Wars, four self-governing colonies in the south of Africa were merged into the Union of South Africa. The four regions were the Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Natal and Transvaal. The two regions later became the nations of Lesotho and Swaziland in the 1920s. Following the election of the Nationalist government in 1948, some English-speaking whites in Natal advocated either secession or a loose federation.^[29] In 1993, leading into South Africa's first elections of universal suffrage and the end of Apartheid, the Natal and Cape regions called for their secession from South Africa. Pressure from the National Party government and the ANC (African National Congress) managed to suppress the two movements. In 2008, a political movement calling for the return to independence of the Cape resurged in the shape of the political organisation, the Cape Party. The Cape Party contested their first elections on 22 April 2009.

Spain

Spain (known officially as "the Kingdom of Spain") was assembled in the 15th century from various component kingdoms, of which Portugal seceded in the Portuguese Restoration War while other component kingdoms lost their secession wars. Spain has several secessionist movements, the most notable being in Catalonia, Basque Country and Galicia.

Sri Lanka

The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam operated a de facto independent state in eastern and northern Sri Lanka until 2009.

Switzerland

In 1847 seven disaffected Catholic cantons formed a separate alliance because of moves to change the cantons of Switzerland from a confederation to a more centralized government federation. This effort was crushed in the Sonderbund war and a new Swiss Federal Constitution was created.^[30]

United Kingdom

The Republic of Ireland is the only territory that has withdrawn from the United Kingdom proper. It declared independence in 1919 and, as the Irish Free State, gained independence in 1922. Currently the United Kingdom has a number of secession movements:

• In Northern Ireland, Irish Republicans and Nationalists in general, have long called for the secession of Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom in order to join the Republic of Ireland. This is opposed by Unionists.
• In Scotland the Scottish National Party (SNP) campaigns for Scottish independence and direct Scottish membership of the European Union. It has representation at all levels of Scottish politics and now forms the devolved Scottish Government. A number of nascent pro-independence parties have enjoyed only limited electoral success. The Scottish Green Party, the Scottish Socialist Party and the Scottish Enterprise Party are most widely publicised.
• In Wales, Plaid Cymru (Party of Wales) stands for Welsh independence within the European Union. It is also represented at all levels of Welsh politics and is the second largest party in the National Assembly of Wales.
• In Cornwall, supporters of Mebyon Kernow call for the creation of a Cornish Assembly and separation from England, giving the county significant self-government, whilst remaining within the United Kingdom as a fifth home nation. If Cornwall should be granted Self Government, it will officially be the 13th Government Office Region of the UK.
• The Principality of Sealand, a small platform off the English Coast has declared its independence, although its legal status is doubtful.
• In England the Free England Party (FEP) campaigns for English independence.
• Northern England has some interest in gaining more autonomy as a culturally distinct region of England and Great Britain known as Northumbria.^{[citation needed]}
• Some of the more radical members of the British direct democracy movement in the Conservative Party (Daniel Hannan for example) – while not actually advocating secession – support the federalization of the UK into states along county boundaries (actually a proposal of 5 or 6 regions of England, 4 or 5 in Scotland and 3 in Wales). There are 12 government office regions in the UK.^{[citation needed]}

United States

Discussions and threats of secession have often surfaced in American politics, but only in the case of the Confederate States of America was secession actually declared. A 2008 Zogby International poll revealed that 22% of Americans believe that "any state or region has the right to peaceably secede and become an independent republic."^[31][32] The United States Supreme Court ruled in Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869), that while the union was "perpetual" and that secession ordinances were "absolutely null," membership nevertheless could be revoked "through revolution, or through consent of the States."^[33][34]

Yemen

North Yemen and South Yemen merged in 1990; tensions led to a 1994 southern secession which was crushed in a civil war.

Yugoslavia

On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia seceded from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Others followed, the federation collapsed, and the remaining country, was renamed to Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Several wars ensued between Serbia and seceding entitites and among other ethnic groups in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and later, Kosovo.

Kosovo declared independence on February 17, 2008 and was recognized by several dozen countries, but remained under United Nations administration for several months prior to succession. Montenegro peacefully separated from its union with Serbia in 2006.

See also

Lists

• List of historical autonomist and secessionist movements
• List of active autonomist and secessionist movements
• List of unrecognized countries
• List of U.S. state secession proposals
• List of U.S. county secession proposals

Topics

• Autonomy
• Bioregionalism
• City state
• Decentralization
• Economic secession
• Homeland
• Human scale
• Micronation
• Nullification
• Schism
• Self-determination
• Separatism
• Urban secession

Movements

• Belgian Revolution
• Cape Party
• Cascadia
• Christian Exodus
• Conch Republic
• Declaration of Independence
• Essex Junto
• European Free Alliance
• Free State Project
• The Great Republic of Rough and Ready
• Hartford Convention
• Kurdistan
• League of the South
• Middlebury Institute
• New York City secession
• Orania, Northern Cape
• Republic of Kinney
• Republic of South Carolina
• Scottish Secession Church
• Secession of Quebec
• Second Vermont Republic
• South Carolina Exposition and Protest
• Texas Secession Movement
• Black Liberation Army
• Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Allen Buchanan, “Secession”, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007 [http://books.google.com/books?id=t5ZOTJDK7L4C&pg=PA84&dq=Allen+Buchanan,+Secession:+The+Morality+of+Political+Divorce+From+Fort+Sumter+t&ei=dI3nSuSIKqb0ygSThvjfCw#v=onepage&q=strategy&f=false pgs. 15, 27, 65, 128.
2. ^ Scott Boykin, “The Ethics of Secession,” in David Gordon, Secession, State and Liberty, Transactions Publishers, 1998.
3. ^ Robert W. McGee, Secession Reconsidered, the Journal of Libertarian Studies, Fall 1994.
4. ^ David Gordon, Secession, State and Liberty, Transactions Publishers, 1998.
5. ^ “Secession As an International Phenomenon,” Abstracts of Papers, 2007 Association for Research on Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Americas” conference sponsored by the University of South Carolina Richard Walker Institute for International Studies.
6. ^ Allen Buchanan, How can We Construct a Political Theory of Secession?, paper presented October 5, 2006 to the International Studies Association.
7. ^ Anthony H. Birch, "Another Liberal Theory of Secession," Political Studies 32, 1984, 596-602.
8. ^ Walter Williams, Parting company is an option, WorldNetDaily.Com, December 24, 2003.
9. ^ Jane Jacobs, Cities and the Wealth of Nations, Vintage, 1985.
10. ^ Frances Kendall and Leon Louw, After Apartheid: The Solution for South Africa, Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1987. One of several popular books they wrote about canton-based constitutional alternatives that include an explicit right to secession.
11. ^ Leopold Kohr, The Breakdown of Nations, Routledge & K. Paul, 1957
12. ^ Human Scale, Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1980.
13. ^ http://etext.virginia.edu/jefferson/quotations/jeff1450.htm
14. ^ University of Technology, Sydney description of Aleksandar Pavkovic
15. ^ ^{a b} Aleksandar Pavkovic, Secession, Majority Rule and Equal Rights: a Few Questions, Macquarie University Law Journal, 2003.
16. ^ Steven Yates, “When Is Political Divorce Justified” in David Gordon, 1998.
17. ^ Santosh C. Saha, Perspectives on contemporary ethnic conflict, p. 63, Lexington Books, 2006 ISBN 0739110853.
18. ^ Paul D. Elliot, The East Timor Dispute, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan., 1978).
19. ^ James J. Fox, Dionisio Babo Soares, Out of the ashes: destruction and reconstruction of East Timor‎, p. 175, ANU E Press, 2003, ISBN 0975122916
20. ^ Thomas D. Musgrave, Self-determination and national minorities, p. xiii, Oxford University Press, 2000 ISBN 0198298986
21. ^ Linz, Juan; Stepan, Alfred; Yadav, Yogendra (2007), 'Nation State' or 'State Nation': India in Comparative Perspective, Oxford University Press, pp. 81–82, ISBN 019-568368-4
22. ^ http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/terroristoutfits/index.html
23. ^ UNPO on West Balochistan
24. ^ No Winner Seen in Somalia's Battle With Chaos New York Times, June 2, 2009
25. ^ The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic: "The Somali Republic shall have the following boundaries. (a) North; Gulf of Aden. (b) North West; Djibouti. (c) West; Ethiopia. (d) South south-west; Kenya. (e) East; Indian Ocean."
26. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Somalia
27. ^ The Signs Say Somaliland, but the World Says Somalia
28. ^ UN in Action: Reforming Somaliland's Judiciary
29. ^ SOUTH AFRICA: Cry of Secession TIME, Monday, May 11, 1953
30. ^ A Brief Survey of Swiss History, Switzerland Federal Department of Foreign Affairs.
31. ^ Middlebury Institute/Zogby Poll: One in Five Americans Believe States Have the Right to Secede, Zogby International, July 23, 2008.
32. ^ Alex Mayer, Secession: still a popular idea?, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 25, 2008.
33. ^ Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1868) at Cornell University Law School Supreme Court collection.
34. ^ Aleksandar Pavković, Peter Radan, Creating New States: Theory and Practice of Secession, p. 222, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007.

Further reading

• Mario Pascalev, "Territory: An Account of the Territorial Authority of States." Dissertation, Bowling Green State University, VDM, 2009.
• Dmitry Orlov, Reinventing Collapse, New Society Books, 2008, ISBN 9780865716063
• Allen Buchanan, Justice, Legitimacy, and Self-Determination: Moral Foundations for International Law (Oxford Political Theory), Oxford University Press, 2007.
• Marc Weller, Autonomy, Self Governance and Conflict Resolution (Kindle Edition), Taylor & Francis, 2007.
• Anne Noronha Dos Santos, Military Intervention and Secession in South Asia: The Cases of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Kashmir, and Punjab (Psi Reports), Praeger Security International, 2007.
• Wayne Norman, Negotiating Nationalism: Nation-Building, Federalism, and Secession in the Multinational State, Oxford University Press, USA, 2006.
• Robert, F. Hawes, One Nation, Indivisible? A Study of Secession and the Constitution, Fultus Corporation, 2006.
• Secession And International Law: Conflict Avoidance-regional Appraisals, United Nations Publications, 2006.
• Marcelo G. Kohen (Editor), Secession: International Law Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, 2006.
• Miodrag Jovanovic, Constitutionalizing Secession in Federalized States: A Procedural Approach, Ashgate Publishing, 2006.
• Christopher Heath Wellman, A Theory of Secession, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
• Bruno Coppieters, Richard Sakwa (Editors), Contextualizing Secession: Normative Studies in Comparative Perspective, Oxford University Press, USA, 2003.
• Percy Lehning, Theories of Secession, Routledge, 1998.
• David Gordon, Secession, State and Liberty, Transactions Publishers, 1998.
• Metta Spencer, Separatism: Democracy and Disintegration, Rowan & Littlefield, 1998.
• Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination: The Accommodation of Conflicting Rights, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996.
• Allen Buchanan, Secession: The Morality Of Political Divorce From Fort Sumter To Lithuania And Quebec, Westview Press, 1991.
• Leopold Kohr, The Breakdown of Nations, Routledge & K. Paul, 1957.

External links

• Christopher Ketcham, Most Likely to Secede, Good Magazine, January 2008.
• Michael Hirsch, How the South Won (This) Civil War, Newsweek, April 2008, article speculating on northern secession.
• Secession (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
• Secession - from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
• Secession - from the Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia
• “Secession As an International Phenomenon,” Abstracts of Papers, 2007 Association for Research on Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Americas” conference sponsored by the University of South Carolina Richard Walker Institute for International Studies.
• Andrei Kreptul, The Constitutional Right of Secession in Political Theory and History, Journal of Libertarian Studies, Ludwig von Mises Institute, Volume 17, no. 4 (Fall 2003), pp. 39–100.
• Assistant professor Jason Sorens' writings on secession, Department of Political Science, University of Buffalo
• "secession". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

Categories: Secession | International law

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