A great power is a nation A nation is a group of people who share common history, culture, ethnic origin and language, often possessing or seeking its own government. The development and conceptualization of a nation is closely related to the development of modern industrial states and nationalist movements in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, although or state A sovereign state is a political association with effective internal and external sovereignty over a geographic area and population which is not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. While in abstract terms a sovereign state can exist without being recognised by other sovereign states, unrecognised states will often find it hard to that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess economic Economics is the social science that is concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία from οἶκος (oikos, "house") + νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)". Current, military A military is an organization authorized to use force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. As an adjective the term "military" is also used to refer to any property or aspect of a military. Militaries often function as societies within societies, by having their own, diplomatic Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the conduct of international relations through the intercession of professional diplomats with regard to issues of peace-making, trade, war, economics, culture, environment and human rights, and cultural Soft power is the ability to obtain what one wants through co-option and attraction. It is in contradistinction to 'hard power', which is the use of coercion and payment. It is similar in substance but not identical to a combination of the second dimension and the third dimensions (or the radical dimension) of power as expounded by Steven Lukes in strength, which may cause other smaller nations to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions of their own. International relations International relations or International studies (IS) represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), and multinational theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions. Sometimes the status of great powers is formally recognized in conferences such as the Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. Its objective was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. This[1][4][5] or an international structure such as the United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military.[1][2][6]

The term "great power" was first used to represent the most important powers in Europe Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus region (Specification of borders) and the Black Sea to the southeast. Europe is bordered by the during the post-Napoleonic Napoleon Bonaparte , was a military and political leader of France and Emperor of the French as Napoleon I, whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century era.[7] Since then, the international balance of power In international relations, a balance of power exists when there is parity or stability between competing forces. As a term in international law for a 'just equilibrium' between the members of the family of nations, it expresses the doctrine intended to prevent any one nation from becoming sufficiently strong so as to enable it to enforce its will has shifted numerous times, most dramatically during World War I World War I was a military conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918 and involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies and the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 15 million people were and World War II Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland ·. While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is no definitive list, leading to a continuing debate.

Contents

Characteristics

There are no set or defined characteristics of a great power. These characteristics have often been treated as empirical, self-evident to the assessor.[8] However, this approach has the disadvantage of subjectivity. As a result, there have been attempts to derive some common criteria and to treat these as essential elements of great power status.

Early writings on the subject tended to judge nations by the realist Realism, also known as political realism , is a school of international relations that prioritizes national interest and security, rather than ideals, social reconstructions, or ethics. This term is often synonymous with power politics. The international system is anarchic. States prioritize survival, using a self-help dynamic. Human beings are criterion, as expressed by the historian AJP Taylor when he noted that "The test of a Great power is the test of strength for war."[9] Later writers have expanded this test, attempting to define power in terms of overall military, economic, and political capacity.[10] Kenneth Waltz Kenneth Neal Waltz is a member of the faculty at Columbia University and one of the most prominent scholars of international relations (IR) alive today. He is one of the founders of neorealism, or structural realism, in international relations theory, the founder of the neorealist Neorealism or structural realism is a theory of international relations, outlined by Kenneth Waltz in his 1979 book Theory of International Politics. Waltz argues in favor of a systemic approach: the international structure acts as a constraint on state behavior, so that only states whose outcomes fall within an expected range survive. This system theory of international relations, uses a set of five criteria to determine great power: population and territory; resource endowment; economic capability; political stability and competence; and military strength. These expanded criteria can be divided into three heads: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status.[5]

Power dimension

Leopold Von Ranke Leopold von Ranke was a German historian, considered one of the founders of modern source-based history. Ranke set the tone for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources (Empiricism), an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (Aussenpolitik) was one of the first to attempt to scientifically document the great powers.

As noted above, for many, power capabilities were the sole criterion. However, even under the more expansive tests power retains a vital place.

This aspect has received mixed treatment, with some confusion as to the degree of power required. Writers have approached the concept of great power with differing conceptualizations of the world situation, from multi-polarity to overwhelming hegemony Hegemony is the political, economic, ideological or cultural power exerted by a dominant group over other groups, regardless of the explicit consent of the latter. While initially referring to the political dominance of certain ancient Greek city-states over their neighbors, the term has come to be used in a variety of other contexts, in. In his essay, 'French Diplomacy in the Postwar Period', the French historian Jean-Baptiste Duroselle spoke of the concept of multi-polarity: "A Great power is one which is capable of preserving its own independence against any other single power."[11]

This differed from earlier writers, notably from Leopold von Ranke Leopold von Ranke was a German historian, considered one of the founders of modern source-based history. Ranke set the tone for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources (Empiricism), an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (Aussenpolitik), who clearly had a different idea of the world situation. In his essay 'The Great Powers', written in 1833, von Ranke wrote: "If one could establish as a definition of a Great power that it must be able to maintain itself against all others, even when they are united, then Frederick has raised Prussia to that position."[12]

These positions have been the subject of criticism.[5] For Duroselle's definition to result in more than one great power, major world powers must be equal in power—each able to resist one another. This fails to take into account the general state of international relations in which amongst great powers there are nations which are stronger than others.

Spatial dimension

All nations have a geographic scope of interests, actions, or projected power. This is a crucial factor in distinguishing a great power from a regional power; by definition the scope of a regional power is restricted to its region. It has been suggested that a great power should be possessed of actual influence throughout the scope of the prevailing international system. Arnold J. Toynbee Arnold Joseph Toynbee CH was a British historian whose twelve-volume analysis of the rise and fall of civilizations, A Study of History, 1934-1961, was a synthesis of world history, a metahistory based on universal rhythms of rise, flowering and decline, which examined history from a global perspective, for example, observes that "Great power may be defined as a political force exerting an effect co-extensive with the widest range of the society in which it operates. The Great powers of 1914 were 'world-powers' because Western society had recently become 'world-wide'."[13]

Other suggestions have been made that a great power should have the capacity to engage in extra-regional affairs and that a great power ought to be possessed of extra-regional interests, two propositions which are often closely connected.[14]

Status dimension

Formal or informal acknowledgment of a nation's great-power status has also been a criterion for being a great power. As political scientist George Modelski notes, "The status of Great power is sometimes confused with the condition of being powerful, The office, as it is known, did in fact evolve from the role played by the great military states in earlier periods ... But the Great power system institutionalizes the position of the powerful state in a web of rights and obligations."[15]

This approach restricts analysis to the post-Congress of Vienna epoch; it being there that great powers were first formally recognized.[5] In the absence of such a formal act of recognition it has been suggested that great power status can arise by implication, by judging the nature of a state's relations with other great powers.[16]

A further option is to examine a state's willingness to act as a great power.[16] As a nation will seldom declare that it is acting as such, this usually entails a retrospective examination of state conduct. As a result this is of limited use in establishing the nature of contemporary powers, at least not without the exercise of subjective observation.

Other important criteria throughout history are that great powers should have enough influence to be included in discussions of political and diplomatic questions of the day, and have influence on the final outcome and resolution. Historically, when major political questions were addressed, several great powers met to discuss them. Before the era of groups like the United Nations, participants of such meetings were not officially named, but were decided based on their great power status. These were conferences which settled important questions based on major historical events. This might mean deciding the political resolution of various geographical and nationalist claims following a major conflict, or other contexts.

There are several historical conferences and treaties which display this pattern, such as the Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. Its objective was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. This, the Congress of Berlin The Congress of Berlin was a meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, the meeting's aim was to reorganize the countries of the Balkans. Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to balance the distinct interests of the United, the discussions of the Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties which redrew the map of Europe, and the Treaty of Westphalia The term Peace of Westphalia denotes the two French-language peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster (24 October 1648) that ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1567–1609), between Spain and the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. The Peace of Westphalia treaties involved the Holy.

History

The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819

Different sets of great, or significant, powers have existed throughout history; however, the term "great power" has only been used in scholarly or diplomatic discourse since the Congress of Vienna in 1815.[4][5] The Congress established the Concert of Europe The Concert of Europe, also known as the "Congress System," was the balance of power that existed in Europe from the fall of Napoleon in 1815 until the early 20th century. Its founding members were the UK, Austria, Russia and Prussia, the members of the Quadruple Alliance responsible for the downfall of Napoleon I; in time France became as an attempt to preserve peace after the years of Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts declared against Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to the.

Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary The Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, commonly referred to as the Foreign Secretary, is a member of the Her Majesty's Government heading the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and responsible for relations with foreign countries, matters pertaining to the Commonwealth of Nations and the UK's overseas territories and the, first used the term in its diplomatic context, in a letter sent on February 13, 1814: "It affords me great satisfaction to acquaint you that there is every prospect of the Congress terminating with a general accord and Guarantee between the Great powers of Europe, with a determination to support the arrangement agreed upon, and to turn the general influence and if necessary the general arms against the Power that shall first attempt to disturb the Continental peace."[7]

The Congress of Vienna consisted of five main powers: the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927. It was formed by the merger of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland, with Ireland being governed directly from Westminster through its Dublin Castle administration, the Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire was a modern era successor empire founded on a remnant of the Holy Roman Empire centered on what is today's Austria that officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria–Hungary, which was proclaimed after declaring the Emperor of Austria also King of Hungary, a diplomatic move that elevated, Prussia Prussia (German: Preußen ; Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Latvian: Prūsija; Lithuanian: Prūsija; Polish: Prusy; Old Prussian: Prūsa) was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries this state had substantial influence on German and European history. The last capital of the state of, France France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian,, and Russia The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union. It was the second largest contiguous empire in world history, surpassed only by the Mongol Empire, and the third largest empire behind the British Empire and the Mongol. Other powers, such as Spain Spain (pronounced /ˈspeɪn/ spayn; Spanish: España, pronounced [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.[note 6] Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for, Portugal The Kingdom of Portugal was Portugal's general designation under the monarchy. The kingdom was located in the west of the Iberian Peninsula, Europe and existed from 1139 to 1910. It was replaced by the Portuguese First Republic after the Lisbon Regicide and ultimately, the 5 October 1910 revolution, and Sweden Sweden (pronounced /ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən, Swedish: Sverige [ˈsvær.jə]), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden has land borders with Norway to the west and Finland to the northeast, and water borders with Denmark, Germany and were consulted on certain specific issues, but they were not full participants. Hanover Hanover or Hannover[nb 1] (German: Hannover , [haˈnoːfɐ]), on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), Germany and was once by personal union the family seat of the Hanoverian Kings of Great Britain, in their dignities as the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg (which title was later called the Elector of, Bavaria Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria (German: Freistaat Bayern, pronounced [ˈfʁaɪʃtaːt ˈbaɪ.ɐn] ; Alemannic German: Freistaat Bayre; Austro-Bavarian: Freistoot Boarn), is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of the country. With an area of 70,548 square kilometres (27,200 sq mi), it is by far the largest German state by area,, and Württemberg Württemberg , formerly known as Wirtemberg, is an area and a former state in southwestern Germany, including parts of the regions Swabia and Franconia were also consulted on issues relating to Germany. These five primary participants constituted the original great powers as we know the term today.[5]

Of the five original great powers recognised at the Congress of Vienna, only France and the United Kingdom have maintained that status to the present day, although France was conquered and occupied during World War II. After the Congress of Vienna, the British Empire emerged as the pre-eminent power, due to its navy and the extent of its territories and signaled the beginning of the Pax Britannica Pax Britannica was the period of relative peace in Europe (1815-1914) when the British Empire controlled most of the key naval trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power. It refers to a period of British imperialism after the 1815 Battle of Waterloo, which led to a period of overseas British expansionism. Britain dominated overseas markets and of The Great Game The Great Game is a term used for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia. The classic Great Game period is generally regarded as running approximately from the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. A second, less intensive phase followed the between Britain and Russia. The Balance of power between the Great Powers became a major influence in European politics, prompting Otto von Bismarck Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, was a Prussian/German statesman of the late 19th century, and a dominant figure in world affairs. As Ministerpräsident, or Prime Minister, of Prussia from 1862–1890, he oversaw the unification of Germany. In 1867 he became Chancellor of the North German Confederation. He designed the German Empire in 1871, to say "All politics reduces itself to this formula: try to be one of three, as long as the world is governed by the unstable equilibrium of five great powers."[17][18][19][20]

Over time, the relative power of these five nations fluctuated, which by the dawn of the 20th century had served to create an entirely different balance of power. Some, such as the UK and Prussia (as part of the newly-formed German state The German Empire refers to Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II (28 November 1918). Deutsches Reich remained the official name of Germany throughout the Weimar period and), experienced continued economic growth and political power.[21] Others, such as Russia and Austria-Hungary, slowly stagnated.[22]. At the same time, other states were emerging and expanding in power, largely through the process of industrialization Industrialisation is the process of social and economic change that transforms a human group from a pre-industrial society into an industrial one. It is a part of a wider modernisation process, where social change and economic development are closely related with technological innovation, particularly with the development of large-scale energy and. The foremost of these emerging powers were Japan The Empire of Japan was a Japanese political entity that existed during the period from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until its defeat in World War II in 1945 after the Meiji Restoration The Meiji Restoration , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution or Renewal, restored imperial rule to Japan in 1867. The Restoration was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure. It occurred in the later half of the 19th century, a period that spans both the late Edo period (often called Late and the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language after its civil war Union blockade – Eastern – Western – Lower Seaboard – Trans-Mississippi – Pacific Coast, both of which had been minor powers in 1815. By the dawn of the 20th century the balance of world power had changed substantially since the Congress of Vienna. The Eight-Nation Alliance The Eight-Nation Alliance was an alliance made up of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States whose military forces invaded China in response to the siege of diplomatic legations from several nations residing in the Legation Quarter in Beijing. The forces consisted of approximately 45,000 was a belligerent alliance of eight nations against the Boxer Rebellion The Boxer Rebellion, now called by most historians The Boxer Uprising, or the Righteous Harmony Society Movement (simplified Chinese: 义 in China. It formed in 1900 and consisted of the five Congress powers plus Italy, Japan, and the United States, representing the great powers at the beginning of 20th century.[23]

Great powers at war

The "Big Four" at the Treaty of Versailles: David Lloyd George, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson.

Shifts of international power have most notably occurred through major conflicts.[24] The conclusion of the Great War and the resulting treaties of Versailles, St-Germain, and Trianon witnessed the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan and the United States as the chief arbiters of the new world order.[25] In the aftermath of World War I the German Empire was defeated, the Austria-Hungarian empire was divided into new, less powerful states and the Russian Empire fell to a revolution. During the Treaty of Versailles the "Big Three"—France, the United Kingdom, and the United States—held noticeably more power and influence on the proceedings and outcome of the treaty than Italy or Japan.[26][27][28] The victorious great powers also gained an acknowledgment of their status through permanent seats at the League of Nations Council, where they acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly of the League. But the Council began with only four permanent members – Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan – because the United States, meant to be the fifth permanent member, left because the US Senate voted on 19 March 1920 against the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, thus preventing American participation in the League.

When World War II started in 1939, it divided the world into two alliances – the Allies (Great Britain and France at first, followed in 1941 by the Soviet Union, the United States, and China); and the Axis powers consisting of Germany and the former Allies Italy and Japan.[29] [nb 1] The end of World War II saw the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union emerge as the primary victors. The importance of the Republic of China and France was acknowledged by their inclusion, along with the other three, in the group of countries allotted permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.

The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference: Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin.

Since the end of the World Wars, the term "great power" has been joined by a number of other power classifications. Foremost among these is the concept of the superpower, used to describe those nations with overwhelming power and influence in the rest of the world. It was first coined in 1944 by William T.R. Fox[30] and according to him, there were three superpowers: the British Empire, the United States, and the Soviet Union. But by the mid 1950s the British Empire lost its superpower status, leaving the United States and the Soviet Union as the world's superpowers.[nb 2] The term middle power has emerged for those nations which exercise a degree of global influence, but are insufficient to be decisive on international affairs. Regional powers are those whose influence is generally confined to their region of the world.

During the Cold War, the Asian power of Japan and the European powers of the United Kingdom, France, and West Germany rebuilt their economies. France and the United Kingdom maintained technologically advanced armed forces with power projection capabilities and maintain large defence budgets to this day. Yet, as the Cold War continued, authorities began to question if France and the United Kingdom could retain their long-held statuses as great powers.[31] China, with the world's largest population, has slowly risen to great power status, with large growth in economic and military power in the post-war period. By the 1970s, the Republic of China began to lose its recognition as the sole legitimate government of China by the other great powers, in favour of the People's Republic of China. Subsequently, in 1971, it lost its permanent seat at the UN Security Council to the People's Republic of China.

Aftermath of the Cold War

The present day governments thought of as great powers
Great powers (with Security Council vetoes): China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and United States. Great powers without Security Council vetoes: Germany and Japan.

At present China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States are sometimes referred to as great powers, although there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what precisely defines a "great" power, and sources have at times referred to China, France, and the UK[32] as "middle powers". Those five nations are the only states to have permanent seats on the UN Security Council. They are also the recognized "Nuclear Weapons States" under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In addition, despite the lack of a permanent seat at the UN Security Council, Germany and Japan are occasionally considered to be great powers, although Germany[nb 3][33][34] and Japan[35] are referred to by others as middle powers or economic great powers.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its UN Security Council permanent seat was transferred to the Russian Federation in 1991, as its successor state. The newly-formed Russian Federation emerged on the level of a great power, leaving the United States as the only remaining global superpower[nb 4] (although this is disputed in the multipolar world view).

With continuing European integration, the European Union is increasingly being seen as a great power in its own right,[36] most notably in areas where it has exclusive competence (i.e. economic affairs), and with representation at the WTO and at G8 and G-20 summits. The European Union, however, is not a sovereign state and has limited scope in the areas of foreign affairs and defence policy, which remain with the union's member states, including France, Germany and the United Kingdom.

List of great powers by date

1815 c. 1880 c. 1900 1919
Austrian Empire[1][4][5][5] Austria-Hungary[37] Austria-Hungary[23]
British Empire[1][4][5] British Empire[37] British Empire[23] British Empire[26]
Empire of Japan[23] Empire of Japan[26][nb 5]
France[1][4][5] France[37] France[23] France[26]
Prussia[1][4][5] German Empire[37] German Empire[23]
Italy[23] Italy[26]
Russian Empire[1][4][5] Russian Empire[37] Russian Empire[23]
United States[23] United States[26]
c. 1939 1946 c. 2000
Empire of Japan[29] Japan[1][6][38][39]
France[29] France[1][2] France[1][2][6]
Germany[29] Germany[1][6]
Italy[29]
Republic of China[1][2] People's Republic of China[1][2][6][38][40][41][42]
Soviet Union[29] Soviet Union[1][2][30] Russia[1][2][6][38][41]
United Kingdom[nb 6][29] United Kingdom[1][2][30] United Kingdom[1][2][6]
United States[29] United States[1][2][30] United States[1][2][6][43][44]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Even though the book: The Economics of World War II lists 7 great powers at the start of 1939 (the British Empire, the Empire of Japan, France, the Kingdom of Italy, Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States) This book focuses only on 6 of the 7 great powers that fought during World War II. This is because France surrendered shortly after the war began
  2. ^ The 1956 Suez Crisis suggested that Britain, financially weakened by two world wars, could not then pursue its foreign policy objectives on an equal footing with the new superpowers without sacrificing convertibility of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy. – from superpower cited by Adam Klug and Gregor W. Smith, 'Suez and Sterling', Explorations in Economic History, Vol. 36, No. 3 (July 1999), pp. 181–203.
  3. ^ Germany is also considered by Chancellor Angela Merkel, former president Johannes Rau, and leading media of the country, as a "middle" political power in Europe. Robert Birnbaum. "Porträt: Angela Merkel" (in German). Tagesspiegel online. http://www.tagesspiegel.de/tso/sonderthema10/nachrichten/impulse-21-berliner-forum-sicherheitspolitik/79202.asp. Retrieved 2007-01-31. "Weichenstellungen in der Außen– und ihrem Unterkapitel, der Sicherheitspolitik sind zugleich von großer Bedeutung für die Zukunft der Mittelmacht Deutschland."
  4. ^ The fall of the Berlin wall and the breakup of the Soviet Union left the United States as the only remaining superpower in the 90's.
  5. ^ "the prime minister of Canada (during the Treaty of Versailles) said that there were "only three major powers left in the world the United States, Britain and Japan" ... (but) The Great Powers could not be consistent. At the instance of Britain, Japan's ally, they gave Japan five delegates to the Peace Conference, just like themselves, but in the Supreme Council the Japanese were generally ignored or treated as something of a joke." from MacMillan, Margaret (2003). Paris 1919. United States of America: Random House Trade. p. 306. ISBN 0-375-76052-0.
  6. ^ After the Statute of Westminster came into effect in 1931 the United Kingdom no longer represented the British Empire in world affairs.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Great Powers". Encarta. MSN. 2008. http://www.webcitation.org/5kwqEr8pe. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Louden, Robert (2007). "Great+power" The world we want. United States of America: Oxford University Press US. pp. 187. ISBN 0195321375. http://books.google.com/books?id=WuKmrwgrL9IC&pg=PA187&dq="Great+power".
  3. ^ Kelsen, Hans (2000). The law of the United Nations: a critical analysis of its fundamental .... United States of America: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd.. pp. 272–281, 911. ISBN 1584770775. http://www.google.com/books?id=BWPa0MB_AyQC&pg=PA272#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Fueter, Eduard (1922). World history, 1815–1920. United States of America: Harcourt, Brace and Company. pp. 25–28, 36–44. ISBN 1584770775. http://books.google.com/books?id=XeKyv9l-3QEC&pg=PA25&dq=%22Great+Powers%22+%22Congress+of+Vienna%22&as_brr=0#v=onepage&q=%22Great%20Powers%22%20%22Congress%20of%20Vienna%22&f=false.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Danilovic, Vesna. "When the Stakes Are High—Deterrence and Conflict among Major Powers", University of Michigan Press (2002), p 27, p225-p228 (PDF chapter downloads) (PDF copy).
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h "Great+power" Balance of Power. United States of America: State University of New York Press, 2005. 2005. pp. 59, 282. ISBN 0791464016. http://www.google.com/books?id=9jy28vBqscQC&pg=PA59&dq="Great+power". Accordingly, the great powers after the Cold War are Britain, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, and the United States p.59
  7. ^ a b Webster, Charles K, Sir (ed), British Diplomacy 1813–1815: Selected Documents Dealing with the Reconciliation of Europe, G Bell (1931), p307.
  8. ^ Waltz, Kenneth N (1979). Theory of International Politics. McGraw-Hill. p. 131.
  9. ^ Taylor, Alan JP (1954). The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918. Oxford:Clarendon. p. xxiv.
  10. ^ Organski, AFK – World Politics, Knopf (1958)
  11. ^ contained on page 204 in: Kertesz and Fitsomons (eds) – Diplomacy in a Changing World, University of Notre Dame Press (1959)
  12. ^ Iggers and von Moltke "In the Theory and Practice of History", Bobbs-Merril (1973)
  13. ^ Toynbee, Arnold J (1926). The World After the Peace Conference. Humphrey Milford and Oxford University Press. p. 4. http://www.archive.org/details/TheWorldAfterThePeaceConference.
  14. ^ Stoll, Richard J – State Power, World Views, and the Major Powers, Contained in: Stoll and Ward (eds) – Power in World Politics, Lynne Rienner (1989)
  15. ^ Modelski, George (1972). Principles of World Politics. Free Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0029214404.
  16. ^ a b Domke, William K – Power, Political Capacity, and Security in the Global System, Contained in: Stoll and Ward (eds) – Power in World Politics, Lynn Rienner (1989)
  17. ^ Peace, War, and the European Powers, 1814–1914
  18. ^ Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World
  19. ^ The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848
  20. ^ Britain And Germany: from Ally to Enemy
  21. ^ "Multi-polarity vs Bipolarity, Subsidiary hypotheses, Balance of Power" (PPT). University of Rochester. http://www.courses.rochester.edu/stone/PSC272/lectures/05-Pro%20Waltz.ppt. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
  22. ^ Tonge, Stephen; head of history at Catholic University School in Dublin. "European History Austria-Hungary 1870–1914". http://www.historyhome.co.uk/europe/aus-hun.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i Dallin, David. The Rise of Russia in Asia. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5nIUd_mlEcC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22boxer+rebellion%22+%22great+powers%22&source=web&ots=PFvmBinYof&sig=Hom8pFuEToBb-31aGxGAUydZOAs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPA56,M1.
  24. ^ Power Transitions as the cause of war.
  25. ^ Globalization and Autonomy by Julie Sunday, McMaster University.
  26. ^ a b c d e f MacMillan, Margaret (2003). Paris 1919. United States of America: Random House Trade. pp. 36, 306, 431. ISBN 0-375-76052-0.
  27. ^ Boemeke, Manfred; Gerald D. Feldman, Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt (1998). The Treaty of Versailles: 75 Years After. United States of America: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62132-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=PA272&dq=%22Big+Three%22+Versailles+%22great+powers%22&client=firefox-a#PPA271,M1.
  28. ^ Paris 1919 by Margaret MacMillan has the Council of Five Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the United States as the main victors and renaming Great Powers.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h Harrison, M (2000) The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison, Cambridge University Press.
  30. ^ a b c d The Superpowers: The United States, Britain and the Soviet Union – Their Responsibility for Peace (1944), written by William T.R. Fox
  31. ^ HOLMES, JOHN. "Middle Power". The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005274. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
  32. ^ Gerald Segal, Does China Matter?, Foreign Affairs (September/October 1999).
  33. ^ Sperling, James (2001). "Neither Hegemony nor Dominance: Reconsidering German Power in Post Cold-War Europe". British Journal of Political Science. doi:10.1017/S0007123401000151. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=BAF3F6B6103D4CEF49834F52571F68B0.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=68015.
  34. ^ Max Otte, Jürgen Greve (2000). A Rising Middle Power?: German Foreign Policy in Transformation, 1989–1999. Germany. pp. 324. ISBN 0312226535.
  35. ^ Er LP (2006) Japan's Human Security Rolein Southeast Asia
  36. ^ Buzan, Barry (2004). The United States and the Great Powers. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press. pp. 70. ISBN 0745633757.
  37. ^ a b c d e McCarthy, Justin (1880). A History of Our Own Times, from 1880 to the Diamond Jubilee. New York, United States of America: Harper & Brothers, Publishers. pp. 475–476. http://books.google.com/books?id=kvYoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA480&dq=%22Great+Powers%22#PPA475,M1.
  38. ^ a b c UW Press: Korea's Future and the Great Powers
  39. ^ Richard N. Haass, "Asia’s overlooked Great Power", Project Syndicate April 20, 2007.
  40. ^ Yong Deng and Thomas G. Moore (2004) "China Views Globalization: Toward a New Great-Power Politics?" The Washington Quarterly
  41. ^ a b PINR – Uzbekistan and the Great Powers
  42. ^ Friedman, George (2008-06-15). "The Geopolitics of China". Stratfor. http://web.stratfor.com/images/GEOPOLITICS%20of%20China%20080615.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
  43. ^ "Analyzing American Power in the Post-Cold War Era". http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
  44. ^ Cohen, Eliot A. (July/August 2004). "History and the Hyperpower". Foreign Affairs. http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20040701faessay83406/eliot-a-cohen/history-and-the-hyperpower.html. Retrieved 2006-07-14.

Further reading

Power in international relations
Types of power Philosophical power · Soft power · Hard power · Smart power · Comprehensive National Power · Political power (Machtpolitik • Realpolitik) · Food power
Types of power status Middle power · Regional power · Great power · Superpower (Potential superpowers) · Hyperpower
Geopolitics British Century · American Century · Chinese Century · Asian Century
Theory and history Balance of power · Historical powers · Polarity · Military power projection · Power transition theory · Second Superpower · Sphere of influence · Superpower collapse · Superpower disengagement · Composite Index of National Capability
Organizations and groups G7 · G8 · G20 · G77 · African Union · ANZUS · APEC · Arab League · ASEAN · BRIC · N-11 · CIS · Commonwealth of Nations · European Union · NATO · Non-Aligned Movement · OAS · OECD · SAARC · SCO · Union of South American Nations
Diplomacy of the great powers 1871–1913
Great powers Austria–Hungary · British Empire · French Third Republic · German Empire · Kingdom of Italy · Empire of Japan · Russian Empire · United States of America
Treaties and agreements Treaty of Frankfurt · League of the Three Emperors · Treaty of Berlin · German-Austrian Alliance · Triple Alliance · Reinsurance Treaty · Franco-Russian Alliance · Treaty of Paris · Anglo-Japanese Alliance · Entente cordiale · Treaty of Björkö · Taft–Katsura Agreement · Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty of 1907 · Anglo-Russian Entente · Triple Entente · Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty · Racconigi agreement
Events The Great Game · Pan-Slavism · Russo-Turkish War · Congress of Berlin · Scramble for Africa · First Sino-Japanese War · German Naval Laws · Fashoda Incident · Spanish–American War · Annexation of Hawaii · Banana Wars · Philippine–American War · Boxer Rebellion · Boer War · Russo-Japanese War · First Moroccan Crisis · Dreadnought · Agadir Crisis · Bosnian crisis · Italo-Turkish War · Balkan Wars

Categories: States by power status

 

The above information uses material from Wikipedia and is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Some facts may not have been fully verified for accuracy. [Disclaimers]
This page was last archived by our server on Tue Jul 27 02:57:59 2010. [ refresh local cache ]
Displaying this page or its contents does not use any Wikimedia Foundation's resources.
The owners of this site proudly support the Wikimedia Foundation.

[Hide]▼
'Great Power' News
More with St. Louis Blues winger Paul Kariya - St. Louis Post-Dispatch
news.google.com
More with St. Louis Blues winger Paul Kariya

St. Louis Post-Dispatch

He's a dominant offensive defenseman who has a great power -play shot. That's only going to help our team. When you look at the talent we have on our team, ...



and more »
Google News Search: Great power,
Tue Jul 27 02:58:00 2010
'Great Power' Images
greatpower1 800x533 jpg
blogs.colette.fr
greatpower1 800x533 jpg
533px x 800px | 59.10kB

[source page]

Photography by item idem

Yahoo Images Search: Great power,
Tue Jul 27 02:58:00 2010
'Great Power' Blogs
The power of prayer makes all things possible! | SloppyNoodle.com
sloppynoodle.com
The power of prayer makes all things possible! | SloppyNoodle.com

valerie

Mon, 19 Jul 2010 17:13:51 GM

He alone can give us the power to prosper and get wealth, even in a economic downturn so we can show his . great power. to others. Our goal should be to be debt free, for the Bible tells us the borrower is a servant to the lender. ...

Google Blogs Search: Great power,
Tue Jul 27 02:58:03 2010
'Great Power' Answers
What great power does America have that will allow us to rid the world of terrorism?
Q. What great power does America have that will allow us to rid the world of terrorism?
Asked by JL - Fri Apr 6 22:22:06 2007 - - 23 Answers - 0 Comments

A. In reality, none. Too many bleeding heart liberals.
Answered by Common Sense - Fri Apr 6 22:24:25 2007

Yahoo Answers Search: Great power,
Tue Jul 27 02:58:04 2010
[Hide]▲